Language articles

http://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2015/nov/28/step-away-from-your-phone-the-new-rules-of-conversation

This article discusses how face-to-face communication is slowly dying out, due to the increased use of mobile phones and technology, they are losing their sense of communication.

http://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2015/nov/28/how-to-talk-to-anyone-the-experts-guide

This article discusses how children and teens find it hard to communicate, so a therapist has given tips on how to talk to people.

http://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/ng-interactive/2015/nov/28/the-conversation-that-changed-my-life

These are lists of conversations that people claim have affected them in some way. It explains how conversation can be extremely influential.

Does sexism still exist in the media?

Here are some clips and articles about sexism that still exists in the media;
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Py5X_biBOYk

In this clip we see a variety of sexist remarks/acts being made in various media platforms in 2012.
Its interesting to see sexist remarks being made, not only from the man, which is a stereotypical view, but from women as well.

http://i100.independent.co.uk/article/a-british-newspaper-has-actually-published-this-incredibly-sexist-article-on-womens-football--bJT77jvbGx

This article is almost a reaction to an article published by the 'Daily Mirror', written by Derek McGovern, sharing negative and sexist views about women's football.

3D's and theorists

Dominance-Tannen (main theorist) but Lakoff combined dominance and deficit and these are her findings
She created a set of female characteristics:
Women hedge.
Women use super polite forms: "Would you please...?" "I'd really appreciate it if..."
Women speak in italics (use more prosodic features): It's soooo nice...
They use empty adjectives: divine, lovely, adorable...
They use modal verbs: should, would...
Overuse qualifiers. "I think that..."
They use mitigated responses and hidden directives.
They have special lexis for things like colours and cloth.
They avoid coarse language and expletives.
Women can't tell jokes.

Obviously for the dominance approach, for males, it is the exact opposite for most of these.

Deficit-Lakoff
Lakoff states that women say less than men because where men have dominance style to talking, women have a deficit. They are more polite e,t,c
Lakoff states;
They use a greater rage of colour terms

Use "empty" adjectives (example: "it was nice")

Use intensifers (example: "so..", "very..")

Use tag questions (example: "it's a nice day, isn't it?)

Use hedges

Use vague language (example: "..and stuff")

Difference-Tannen
Tannen states there are obvious differences in males and females language especially in the workplace e,t,c.
She says how in the workplace especially, men are applauded for dominance and power, whereas although some females are, its not as congratulated as males.

Tannen's 'vs';

Status vs. support - men see language as a means of asserting dominance; women see it as a way of confirming/supporting ideas.
Independence vs. intimacy - men "go it alone"; women seek support.
Advice vs. understanding - men see language as problem solving; women see it as a means of empathy.
Information vs. feelings - males are concerned with the facts; women with emotions.
Orders vs. proposals - men use imperatives; females use hidden directives.Conflict vs. compromise - men will argue; women will try to find a middle ground.

"What language barrier"

http://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/oct/01/gender.books

This is an article about language barriers, from October 2007

Spoken language notes.

Spoken Language- Genres of speech

·         Characteristics of unplanned speech-Many non-fluency features, usually informal register, deictic & phatic expressions, non-standard grammar common

·         Characteristics of semi-planned speech- Fewer non-fluency features and deictic expressions, usually more formal register, phatic expressions, more standard grammar

·         Characteristics of planned speech-Usually an absence of non-fluency features & few deictic expressions, formal register and standard grammar – usually complete sentences, addressing an audience (though not necessarily using ‘everyday' phatic expressions)

·         We use phatic utterances to make contact with others- phatic utterances are short greetings or exchanges that show that we are being polite or that we want to begin a conversation. They don't contain much meaning in themselves – but as indicators of our feelings and intentions, they are very important. These featured in each conversation shown on the previous screen – but they differed in type.

·         We use interactional exchanges to exchange ideas and social information with friends- interactional exchanges are primarily social. They allow us to share experiences with those around us and help us to develop our relationships.

·         We use expressive utterances- Expressive utterances convey the speaker's feelings and emotions – from the highly personal exchanges we have with those closest to us, to simpler expressions of how we feel.

·         We use referential utterances to provide information- Referential utterances communicate facts, such as the passing on of information in the classroom.

·         We use transactional exchanges to get something done- transactional exchanges serve a particular, usually practical, purpose – often involving goods or services.

Main differences between speech and writing:

1.       Permanence

When you have a normal conversation it's not usually recorded – so it remains only in the memory of yourself and those who heard it.

In contrast, writing can be re-read and remains a permanent record for as long as the text is kept. It's this feature of writing that has made the written mode so valued as societies developed.

2.    Expressing feelings

When we talk, we use facial expressions, different tones of voice and body language to convey our feelings. Whereas writing relies on expressive words, on punctuation and graphological features to try to convey feelings.

For example, if you want to convey surprise, shock or an outburst of emotion in writing, you'll probably use an exclamation mark. If you want to add emphasis to a particular word, you could write it in capital letters.

               

2.       A moment in time

When you talk to someone, you do this during a particular time period – another way of expressing this is by saying that it is ‘temporally bound'.

In contrast, when you read something, the chances are that you weren't present at the time that the writing was produced. Therefore the spoken mode has an immediacy that the written mode rarely possesses.

4.    Context

In addition to being temporally bound, speech is also ‘context bound'. That is, it takes place in a particular situation with all the participants aware of who is talking to whom about what. This can lead to speakers not needing to be precise about certain details. They may, for example, refer to ‘him', ‘that', ‘it', ‘over there', without needing to explain exactly what they mean because everyone present understands. These expressions are deictic – in order to fully understand them, you need to know the context in which they are being used.

A written text cannot easily get away with using these expressions and needs to explain more precisely who or what it is referring to.

5.    Interaction

Speech is usually an interactive process between two or more people – it's active. Writing, on the other hand is not dynamic in this way – the audience is more distant.

To try to achieve more interaction with the reader, writers have to use different approaches. For instance, using the interrogative mood and/or the second person.

Some example of characteristics for:

Speech: Temporally bound, active, context bound.

Writing: Undynamic, permanent

Characteristics of:

Unplanned speech:

·         The register is informal

·         There's a lot of interaction

·         There are a number of deictic expressions

·         There are interruptions and overlaps

Planned speech:

·         Fewer non-fluency features

·         In ‘conversations' there are fewer overlaps and interruptions

·         The words that are used are very carefully chosen

·         In many cases the register is more formal

Rhetoric (public speaking):

Important rhetorical techniques:

Ask them questions- 

One way of gaining a sense of interaction with the audience is to ask questions. Rhetorical questions can be asked – there's no reply expected and the answer is usually obvious. The speaker can also ask a question and then follow it up with an answer, thereby driving home a point.

Show emotion-

·         Emotive language – powerful language with strong connotations – is designed to provoke an emotional response from the audience.

·         A sudden outburst of emotion – usually a single exclamatory statement – also makes the audience feel that the speaker is serious and concerned about the topic.

·         Hyperbole – or extravagant exaggeration – can also help to emphasise the speaker's point.

Build it up-

The use of listing (often in threes) adds weight to the line of argument and can often have the effect of building up to an important point. It can also act in a similar way to repetition by further emphasising an idea by accumulating more examples.

Be imaginative-

Carefully chosen metaphors and similes can help to enrich the message by leaving the audience with effective images.

Trust me-

Many political speeches emphasise, in some way or another, the speaker's credentials and his or her trustworthiness and ability to do a good job. Use of the first person singular pronoun (I) is particularly important here and will be placed very carefully in the speech for maximum impact.

Don’t trust my opponents-

Many political speeches involve criticism of the opposing viewpoint. There are numerous ways in which this can manifest itself. Two very common devices are:

·         To threaten disaster if the opposition is allowed to have its way

·         Using ridicule - mocking your opponents can seriously undermine them

Spoken Language- Conversation Analysis

Spontaneity and expectations:

·         Most interactions begin with an opening sequence which signals to a listener that we want to talk-

These opening sequences are carefully, yet often unconsciously, adapted to make them appropriate to the situation. Here are some examples:

“I'm Karen Marshall. Did you have a good journey?” = meeting a business contact

“Hiya. You ok?” = meeting a friend in the street

“Excuse me.” = approaching a stranger for information

Different situations have their own appropriate opening sequences. The more formal the situation, the more formal the opening. The listener will pick up the verbal cue and usually respond in what is regarded as a socially appropriate way.

·         We expect that certain utterances will be followed by others that fit our expectations-

For example, we expect that a greeting will be followed by a returned greeting:

James: “Hello there”

Claire: “Hi”

We expect a question to be followed by an answer:

JamClaire: “He said he'd see you tomorrow”

We expect that a response will be appropriate to the topic or situation:

Claire: “This pizza's awful”

James: “I know – mine is too”

The main building blocks of our conversations are called adjacency pairs or two-part exchanges.

es: “What did Tom say?”

·         Adjacency pairs involve two utterances - one utterance leads on to another in quick succession. Straight-forward examples of adjacency pairs are two utterances which contain a rational link such as a question followed by an answer or a statement followed by an agreement.

Adjacency pairs:

·         Have each part of the pair spoken by a different person

·         Always have a link

·         Always involve a second utterance following on from the first (although it may not follow on directly – there could be a short interruption).

But they can be interrupted through insertion sequences.

The ‘chains' of adjacency pairs can be broken up or interrupted. This might happen if, for example:

·         someone comes into a room and joins in the conversation

·         the flow of the conversation is temporarily redirected for a few utterances, perhaps so that clarification can be sought

·         These temporary interruptions are known as insertion sequences when someone from ‘outside' joins, and side sequences when, for example, there is a need to clarify something before the original thread of the conversation is resumed.

·          

·         Conversion Analysts Checklist

·         How do the participants maintain and change topics?

·         ~The subjects of our conversations – what we talk about – are called topics. A topic is normally initiated by one person and pursued until that person, or someone else, wishes to end the conversation or move onto another topic. When a change of topic takes place, it's known as a topic shift and the verbal cues to make the change are called topic shifters. Control of topics can be a sign of conversational dominance – where one participant has more control over what is said than others.~

·          

·         Do the participants correct any repairs and, if so, how do they go about this?

·         Repairs occur when there's a need to correct a mistake. Sometimes the speaker will realise that s/he needs to make a correction, sometimes another participant will correct. Here's Tracey and Faye, both repairing a couple of Tracey's mistakes:

·         T: “I got this really nice top from Next (.) no not Next (.) from what you call it (.)? Wallis (.) it's just off Surrey Street”

·          

·         F: “you mean Norfolk Street?”

·          

·         T: “yeah (.) that's the one”

·         In what ways do the participants feedback to one another?

·          

·         Do the participants correct any repairs and, if so, how do they go about this?

·         Repairs occur when there's a need to correct a mistake. Sometimes the speaker will realise that s/he needs to make a correction, sometimes another participant will correct. Here's Tracey and Faye, both repairing a couple of Tracey's mistakes:

·         T: “I got this really nice top from Next (.) no not Next (.) from what you call it (.)? Wallis (.) it's just off Surrey Street”

·          

·         F: “you mean Norfolk Street?”

·          

·         T: “yeah (.) that's the one”

·         In what ways do the participants feedback to one another?

·         When you're talking to someone, it's important that you get a sense that they're listening to you. One way the listener might indicate this is to:

• give minimal responses like hum and uh huh

• utter words such as ‘really?', ‘right', ‘OK' etc. (also known as back-channelling)

• provide non-verbal responses like nodding

How do the participants bring their conversation to a close?

When we're aware that we're coming towards the end of a conversation, we usually try to bring it to a close in a way that is socially acceptable and ‘polite'. To end too abruptly is usually a sign that something has gone wrong.

Here are a couple of ways that Tracey ends her conversations on a particular day:

On the phone:
T: “right (.) well (.) look Jade (.) it's been really nice talking to you (1) yeah (.)! Well we must meet up again soon (.) yeah (.) perhaps on Friday (.) ok (1) see you then (.) by::e”

At college:
T “anyway Faye (.) gotta dash (1) see you later (1) by::e”

Conversation Theories

You've been introduced to some of the practices, processes and terminology associated with conversations. Now it's time to look at some of the theories that have been developed to help us understand how we behave when we talk to each other. Are you familiar with Grice and Goffman?

The cooperative principal A linguist called H.P.Grice developed the idea that there are 4 maxims for successful conversation: The maxim of quantity. Say just the right amount for the situation. The maxim of relevance. What you say should be relevant to the topic being discussed. The maxim of manner. You should speak in a clear, orderly way. The maxim of quality. What you say should be truthful. Clearly, we don't always follow these maxims, but we have an idea that we should. When we're aware that we're flouting them, we often say something like, ‘I'm sorry, that wasn't very clear' or someone else may criticise us if they think we're not telling the truth.

Positive and negative politeness

Being aware of a person's face needs is an important aspect of being polite to those we talk to. Some linguists developed Goffman's ideas – like Robin Lakoff in the 1970s and Brown & Levinson in the 1980s. Some main points of their theories are summarised below. Why not ask your tutor to explain them in greater detail? 

Summary of conversation analysis;

Our conversations are structured around adjacency pairs which link the interactions of the participants.

The linking of these adjacency pairs is called chaining because each pair is attached to the previous one like the links in a chain.

We naturally acquire the skill of anticipating when it's possible to take our turn to speak by interpreting a range of complex verbal and non-verbal signals.

There are accepted ways of opening and closing a conversation. We also adjust the way we speak (our footing) according to the person we are talking to.

Grice's maxims illustrate the ‘rules' or principles of successful conversation and we are conscious of when they are being flouted. We are also aware of politeness strategies and other people's face needs when talking to them.

Levels and skills for essay writing

GCSE:
Knowledge, understanding, application
Clarity
Description
A-LEVEL: The above skills, plus:
Detail, comment, analysis, problem-solving
Thinking for yourself
Using facts to back up opinion
Introduction to research

Tips for coursework

Make sure that you’ve chosen a topic that’s neither too narrow nor too broad

Collecting your primary data can be time-consuming, so don’t leave it till the last minute

Ask permission to record people  by saying something like, ‘Im going to be recording over the next few days. Is that ok?’

If you want to tape a conversation, like an interaction between friends or family, make sure you’ve got a tape-recorder that can do the job.

Structuring an essay-with example, criteria and examiners comments.

http://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/english/AQA-77012-SQP.PDF

This is the link that takes you to the exam paper. I am looking at Question 2 as it looks at gender difference.

http://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/english/AQA-77012-COM.PDF

This is the link that takes you to what the examiner is looking for and expecting from and in your essay, answering Question 2.

http://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/english/AQA-77012-CEX.PDF

This is a link that takes you to an example answer for Question 2, and the examiners comments on it.

Bristol University- Guide to grammar

http://www.bristol.ac.uk/arts/exercises/grammar/grammar_tutorial/index.htm

A-     Handy for revision

B-      Punctuation

Structure- paragraphs, graphology( layout), discourse. FPA(form, purpose, audience)-looking at syntax( compound, complex, simple)-written, utterances-spoken. Functions of syntax-imperative, interrogative, exclamative, declarative 

C-      Common confusion

Homophones, configurative language-examples. Section C is about lexis. Nouns, verbs, synonyms, anonyms etc.. Also semantics and pragmatics- field specific lexis, homophones, “Is that what the author intended”, “literal or metaphorical”

D-     Exam responses

PEE, quote

E-      Other problems

These problems occur in grammar and lexis

F-      Style

Form, purpose, audience

G-     Handy for revision

"10 reasons why English is weird"

1)Wound is a homophobe, but due to the context it is in, we immediately are able to tell the difference between the noun and verb.

2)The first prpduce is the verb, and the second produce is the noun, the subject is also farm.

3)The two refuses are pronounced differently, as the second is almost more exaggerated, which makes it easy to differentiate between the two.

4)The first polish is the verb, and the second the nationality, and we know this as it is capitalised.

5)The verb more than likely comes before the noun, as shown in these homophones.

6) The final 'desert' is the subject, and the first 'desert' is the verb, and then the 'dessert' is the noun, but spelt differently and pronunciated differently as well.

7)The first use of 'present' relates to time, the second to represent giving, and the last as the actually present itself.

8)Bass, although having two different pronunciations, is spelt the same.

9)Both of the uses of 'dove' are spelt the same, yet both have different meanings and pronunciations.

10)As we recognise the first 'object' as a verb, we automatically know the second 'object' is a noun.

English spelling, punctuation and grammar test.

http://www.facebook.com/l.php?u=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Feducation%2F2015%2Fnov%2F03%2Fmorgan-grammar-test-right-answer-spag-english-spelling-punctuation-grammar&h=5AQG9-KsI

An article written by Michael Rosen, he states how he believes the key stage 2 test is about grading children, and not as much about testing their language.

"Why do I make less than my male co-stars?"-Jennifer Lawrence

Jennifer Lawrence relatively recently published a post, onto the social networking site Facebook, discussing her personal experience in being paid less than male co-workers, and to bring attention to on-going sexism and expectations of women.

The purpose of this post may also be to generate debate in a large public space, and possibly to entertain, as she brings a light-hearted humour, by, for example using taboo, to a very serious subject that still shadows a whole gender in today's day and age.

There are a variety of male and female language features in this text, used to explain stereotypical views of both genders;

Male language features;

Men didn't worry about coming across as 'difficult' or 'spoiled', this signifies arrogance and confidence, as they do not care to worry about how others perceive them.

Jennifer explains how after frankly expressing her opinion to a male who worked for her, he retaliated with, "Whoa! We're all on the same team here". This male feels instantly belittled when a woman expressing something in a strong way to him, by retaliating, he tries to show dominance and raise himself above Jennifer Lawrence's level, but also tries to bring himself back up to the same level of the two in a sense by using, "we're, which signifies equality.

"Male's voices are just heard" this signifies respect and how men don't even have to try for respect, they just gain it.

It's also stated that men are possibly commended for being fierce and tactical, as this shows authority and power.

Female language features;

Females don't want to seem 'difficult' or 'spoiled', this may be due to fear of being looked down on and of getting in the way or making a scene.

The aim of female's language is to seem approachable, as stereotypically women are the softer sex, both physically, as in weaker, and emotionally.

Females are supposed to, if expressing their opinions, make it, almost adorable, as if to avoid being patronizing and coming across as too strong.

Jennifer Lawrences rant aside, there are a lot of gender stereotypes still being used today, despite the efforts made by feminists and equality groups, to diminish these stereotypes. When looking at the gender stereotypes, we look at the 3D's.

3D's:

Difference-men and women speak differently.

Dominance-men dominate conversations.

Deficit-opposite of dominance, women are deficit.

Under difference comes the gender stereotypes in language, but in this case, specifically spoken language, for example:

Women gossip

Men are strong and silent

Women talk about domestic&personal trivia

Men talk about important topics( business, money, the government.)

Women have soft and gentle voices

OR

Alternatively have loud, strident voices

Women screech

WHILST

men have rich, deep, reassuring tones-which conveys confidence and authority

And the list goes on...

Under dominance there is a quote that states the dominance approach;

"Sees women as an appressed group, and interprets differences in women's and men's speech in terms of men's dominance and women's subordination.

Language and identity

Standard English-most prestige & written text, formal register, language of power. Expect standard English used by, teachers, and professions that need their statues signified. Professions that don't require standard English are, for example, builders, postman. This is a suggestion of class.

Slang-informal, used more around friends, less around workplaces, and used for talking to new people.

Dialect-lexical features or variations of grammar. Words not accent. Bristol, e,g, not the 'err' at the end, 'gert lush'.

Taboo-offensive lexical choices. Tends to be used in social situations with friends, normal in some context, but not in others.

Technology influenced words- tweets, text & instant message, language is heavily influenced by technology.

Neologisms-New words entering the dictionary, Coinage-new words

Occupational register- Jargo based on shared understanding.

Received Pronunciation-Accent used to teach English language of power, Bankers, MP, Newsreaders, used by people with authority.

Regional Accent- pronouncing words depending on where you live,

Gender equality

http://www.fawcettsociety.org.uk/blog/labour-gender-equality-agenda/

This article is about Labour's Gender Equality Agenda. The news article states how women are still being treated unfairly. This article interests me because I find it shocking how statements like, "stop acting like a girl" are still used as insults, and this article still outlines how women are treated unfairly in today's society, despite how much we've fought for equality.

Link for AQA English language assessment resources.

http://www.aqa.org.uk/subjects/english/as-and-a-level/english-language-7701-7702/assessment-resources

This is a link for summary exam papers, and answers underneath with examiners notes.

"Femvertising"

http://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2015/oct/12/femvertising-branded-feminism

Context affecting dialect/formality/informality

Here are two reviews of 'R U Mine' by Arctic Monkeys. I've chosen these two links in particular because I think they are good examples of how the platform/context differ due to dialect/formality/informality.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6tOiG6H34nI
This link is taken from a music video in which user one particular states how he feels about this song. This comment, among others that are not relevant in the slightest, caught my eye as he states a negative and positive opinion on the band/singer/song. This is a valid review as a review is a statment of opinion on a topic/product/piece. Although it doesn't go into great detail, it is still a review of the song. The reason the user doesn't go into great detail, would be because people don't often go into the comment section of a YouTube video, to find an in-depth, long winded piece of writing with correct musical terminology, which also references past performances, other songs in the same album, and the singers/players abilities. People comment, most of the time, to just express how they feel about the song, its purpose is not to sell the performance or song to a particular audience. It is not written to be taken into consideration and to be read by a mass audience. This suggests why the writing style is so informal and relaxed.

http://www.nme.com/reviews/arctic-monkeys/14752
This link however is taken from a legitimate website which its sole purpose, among other things that relate to media, is to review music. This review is very long winded. It also references other songs by Arctic Monkeys, this suggests that the writer assumes the reader/audience would be familiar with other songs by the band. This portrays that the website may be read by a lot of fans, or people who are very familiar with the music being reviewed.It also is very in depth as the writer is able to state all the influences in the music that have been obtained from other bands/musicians, for example the writer says how Destiny's Child influenced part of 'Knee Socks'. Although it is clear to see that these reviews are aimed at, possibly, youth, as the writer uses this statement to describe how the drummer plays; "Helders’ drums have never sounded so hip-hop as they beat out the rhythm to Alex’s pissed-up booty call." The dialect here seems to relate to slang used by youth nowadays, 'booty call' for example. And although it is almost on a formal platform as its read by many as a legitimate review, it still reads very relaxed, although as it is a different context, it is very different on a general basis, when looking at content and language, as despite the relaxed tone, it is full of terminology and deep analysis.

English derivatives from Latin

Latin is now seen as a dead language, and English as one of the most widely spoken ones. But the amount of English language derived from Latin, would make me reconsider as to whether Latin is actually a dead language, or whether it just became outdated, thus found its way into the modern worlds most known language.

Some example of English language that have been derived from Latin are;

• Villa, which the defintion has stayed the same throughout time.
• Pirata, which means pirate is still used and its definition has stayed the same.
• Schola, which has changed to school, has kept the same definition.
• Figura, which has changed to figure, has once again, kept the same definition.

http://www.jstor.org/stable/3287163?seq=2#page_scan_tab_contents

This link explains the theory behind why Latin is a dead language, but also explains a lot of English derivatives. Its not an article, more a statement of findings, so it has a lot of content, although it does clearly state the derivatives.  

Transcript and analysis

Job conversation transcript 

The speakers in this transcript are anonymous, by making the speakers anonymous, it takes away the identity, making it easier to focus on the dialect instead of the person. The speakers are A,B,C,D. 

A: Have you got a job? 

B: (Laughs)No I don’t but I've applied for lots of places-The laugh before talking shows that the speaker feels awkward as nothing funny has been said but yet they continue to laugh, this portrays a sense of uncertainty. An example of paralinguistic features   

A: Where have you applied for?

B: Um Argos, House of Fraser (Debenhams)-The filler 'um' fills the awkward space where the speaker would be thinking.  

A: (Did you not have any replies)-The overlapping shows uncertainty as speaker A wasn't sure if speaker B had finished speaking, so she interrupted to avoid an awkward pause. 

B: No (.) well the people either ignore me or tell me that I don’t (.) have the right thing for the job (2) that didn’t make sense but yeah (laughs) -The utterance here portray either the awkwardness between the speakers, or because they don’t know what to say/are thinking about what to say. The utterence, (2) is a longer pause, as the speaker had finished speaking, but added extra to clarify what they'd said, also an example of non-standard grammar.

A: Have you got a job C? 

C: I don’t have a job but I’ve applied for many places (.) like B I’ve applied for (.) House of Fraser (.) my recent one I got (.) told I can’t work at Lush because I pat my thighs -Here the speaker goes off topic slightly, as they ellaborate on their answer, the speaker asking the question didn’t not ask them why she didn’t get the job, yet she explains anyway. 

All: (Laughs)-The laughing is a form of body language that portrays that the speakers are comfortable in each others presence. 

C: That’s a bad (.) thing to have apparently (2)  

A: Oh (.) fair enough  

C: I know its great  

B: (Laughs)-Example of a paralinguistic feature, shows ease and comfort between speakers.

A: D have you got a job? 

D: No I don’t have a job because (.) nowhere gets back to me so I’m still looking-Another example of non-standard grammar.  

A: Oh-Here speaker A barely says anything, this is because they have done all the questioning and is unsure of what to say, example of conversation quantity.

D: Mm (.) what about you? Have you got a job?-preferred response, the conversation follows an expected pattern 

A: Yeah I got a job I work at Costa (2)  

All: (Laughs)-  

C: (We’ve had this conversation before)-The overlapping here may show dominance, the speakers are speaking over each other to try and get their say across. but it also make show unsureness or awkwardness as none of the speakers know when to speak, on the other hand, it may portray a sense of comfort and friendliness. 

D: (How many hours do you do?) -Adjacancy pairs, this conversation is following an expected pattern, e,g, question then answer. 

A: 15 hours a week  

D: Is that good or bad?-An example of chaining, links to topic of conversation, keeps conversation flowing. 

A: That’s good (.) but then it takes up all my social time so I got no friends anymore-This was a dispreffered response, the speaker asking the question does not ask about how it effects speaker A's social life. "So I got no friends anymore", another example of non-standard grammar.

C: (Mm that’s sad) 

B: (Aw that’s sad) -Here its hard to tell whether there is a level of sarcasm, or genuine sympathy, but because of all the laughing, we can see it may be friendly sarcasm, as a joke/banter. 

A: Yeah I know  

B&D: (Laughs)  

C: What Costa do you work at? 

A: The one in Avonmeads- Another example of chaining. 

C: Oh yeah (the new one?) 

D: (Do you get discounts on stuff?) 

A: I get it free if I go into that shop (.) and then if I go into other shops (I get like 45% off)  
C: (Okay I’m gonna go work at Costa) -The overlapping here also shows friendliness as they are all contributing to the conversation and are eager to have their say. An example of ellision.

A: (Laughs)(But um yeah)-Fillers

C: (Yeah)-Fillers, back channeling. 

A: I’ve only worked there for like (2) I’ve only had two pay packets now so like two months (2) -The longer pause here suggests there is an awkward silence as everyone has answered the question, and there isn't much else to say. Examples of hedges.

C: I need a job-Phatic talk-small talk. Keeps conversation flowing and polite.  

B: So do I (.) I need money  

C: It’s so sad  

A: (This is just turning into like a) 

All: (Laughs)-More overlapping here, this is starting to give off the impression the speakers are very comfortable around each other, as no apologising follows. 

A: (Like a sad conversation) 

D: Are we done?-Quantity, speaker D doesn’t seem to say a lot. 

A: (.) Yeah  

B: How do I stop it?-Tag questions 

D: (Laughs) 

C: How do you stop that?-Tag questions 

A: We haven’t even been talking for a minute 

D: That’s alright -Speaker D seems to be eager for the conversation to end. Another example of conversation quantity. 

Colour coding;

Tag questions;                

Fillers(pause in once certain case);                

Paralingiustic features;              

Overlapping;              

Non-standard grammar;              

Conversation quantity;               

Chaining(back channeling, preferred, dis-preferred responses);              

Phatic talk;             

Side sequencing;               

Hedges;